# BRLTTY on Linux

Contents

- Least Privilege
  - Safer Execution Environment
    - When Started by the Super User
      - The Unprivileged User
      - State Directories
    - When Started by an Unprivileged User
    - Privilege Parameters
    - Staying Privileged
    - Safe Command Search Path
    - Safe Default Shell
    - Namespace Isolation
    - System Call Filter
  - Preparing the Environment
    - Creating the Unprivileged User
      - The `useradd` Command
      - The `brltty-mkuser` Script
    - Assigning Capabilities to the Executable
      - The `setcap` Command
      - The `brltty-setcaps` Script
  - Privileged Host Operations
    - Kernel Modules
    - Needed Group Memberships
    - Required Capabilities
    - Temporary Capabilities
  - Known Problems
    - Writing to SYSFS Files
    - Creating Virtual Devices via Uinput
    - Creating Private Copies of Device Files

## Least Privilege

When BRLTTY starts executing as the super user (`root`), i.e. when its initial effective user identifier is 0, it has unrestricted access to all of the privileged operations that the host has to offer. While we always endeavour to ensure that BRLTTY isn't abusing this freedom, we also don't feel that it's worth risking the possibility that our code might be hacked. To reduce this possibility, therefore, BRLTTY first establishes a safer execution environment within which It only has access to those privileged host operations that it actually needs. This is a best security practice known as least privilege.

### Safer Execution Environment

#### When Started by the Super User

BRLTTY takes a number of steps to establish a safer execution environment:

- Set a safe command search path.
- Set a safe default shell.
- Namespace isolation.
- Switch to executing as the unprivileged user.
- Install the needed kernel modules.
- Establish the needed group memberships.
- Set its required capabilities.
- Relinquish all non-required capabilities.
- Install the system call filter.

##### The Unprivileged User

When BRLTTY starts executing as the super user (`root`), one of the first things it does is switch to executing as an unprivileged user. The user is selected as follows:

Explicit Specification

  This method is only allowed when BRLTTY was started as the super user (`root`). It may be specified via the `user` privilege parameter. If it isn't explicitly specified, or if there's a problem:

  - The user doesn't exist.
  - The specification is ignored because BRLTTY wasn't started as the super user (`root`).

  then the default user is selected.

The Default

  The default unprivileged user is the one specified at build time via the `lx:user=` parameter of the `--with-privilege-parameters` option of BRLTTY's `configure` command. If there's a problem:

  - The user doesn't exist.
  - BRLTTY wasn't configured to have a default unprivileged user.

  then BRLTTY continues to execute as the super user (`root`).

Continuing to Run as the Super User

  This is the last resort! In this case:

  - BRLTTY still establishes the rest of its safer execution environment.
  - Establishing the needed group memberships replaces (rather than extends) the supplementary group list.

After having successfully switched to executing as an unprivileged user, the following is done:

- Ensure that all of the user identifiers (real, effective, saved, filesystem) are set to the selected user.

- Ensure that all of the group identifiers (real, effective, saved, filesystem) are set to the primary group of the selected user.

- If any of the following environment variables is set then reset it to the name of the selected user:

  - LOGNAME
  - USER

- Ensure that the following environment variables aren't set:

  - XDG_CONFIG_HOME
  - XDG_DATA_DIRS

- Change the XDG runtime directory (set the `XDG_RUNTIME_DIR` environment variable) to that of the selected user.

- Extend the supplementary group list with the needed group memberships.

- If the selected user's home directory is defined then switch to it by:

  - Changing the working directory.
  - Setting the `HOME` environment variable.

  The updatable directory (usually `/var/lib/brltty/`) is used instead if:

  - The user's home directory isn't defined.
  - BRLTTY is unable to switch to the user's home directory.
  - BRLTTY had to continue executing as the super user (`root`).

##### State Directories

A state directory is one which a program needs to be able to write data to. BRLTTY's state directories are:

sockets directory (usually `/var/lib/BrlAPI/`)

  This directory is where BRLTTY creates BrlAPI's local (UNIX domain) server sockets. It needs to be world writable, and, as such, should also have its sticky bit set. So:

      chmod ugo=rwx,o+t path

updatable directory (usually `/var/lib/brltty/`)

  This directory is where BRLTTY saves user data. This includes:

  - preferences files
  - clipboard content
writable directory (usually `/var/run/brltty/`)
  This directory is where BRLTTY creates private copies of file system objects that it needs but that don't already exist (or, at least, that it can't find), or that are inaccessible (can't be opened). It's also where, if requested, BRLTTY creates its input FIFO (which allows users to take advantage of its text-to-speech capability).

The actual locations of these directories can be specified in a number of ways. From highest to lowest precedence, they are:

- command line option
- configuration directive (in `/etc/brltty.conf`)
- environment variable (if the `-E` command line option has been specified)
- default location (can be changed with `configure` at build time)

State Directory Location Specification
Directory | Option | Config Directive | Environment Variable | Default Location
Sockets |  |  |  | `/var/lib/BrlAPI/`
Updatable | -U | updatable-directory | BRLTTY_UPDATABLE_DIRECTORY | `/var/lib/brltty/`
Writable | -W | writable-directory | BRLTTY_WRITABLE_DIRECTORY | `/var/run/brltty/`

After having successfully switched to executing as the unprivileged user, BRLTTY attempts to gain full access to its state directories. The most common case where this is necessary is to automate the transition from an older release of BRLTTY from the days when it had to execute as the super user (`root`). Another (much rarer) case would be when transitioning from one unprivileged user to another.

The main reason that BRLTTY does this job is that it's extremely difficult for a blind user to figure out what's wrong before his/her braille device is up and running. Put another way, it can be near impossible for a braille user to figure out why BRLTTY is having problems while BRLTTY is having problems.

The following actions are taken for each of the state directories:

- If it doesn't exist then it is created. This usually requires the cap_dac_override (temporary) capability because it's usually a subdirectory of a directory that can only be written to by the super user (`root`), e.g. `/var/lib/`.
- Its owning user and group are changed to be the user and the primary group of the user that BRLTTY Is executing as. The same change is also made to whatever the directory contains. This requires the cap_chown (temporary) capability for a directory or file that's owned by a different user.
- Group read and write permissions are added to it and to whatever it contains. For directories, group search permission is also added and the set-group-ID bit is set. This requires the cap_fowner (temporary) capability for a directory or file that's owned by a different user.

Gaining full access to a state directory is only attempted if the last component of its path is its expected name:

Expected State Directory Names
Directory | Expected Name
Sockets | `BrlAPI`
Updatable | `brltty`
Writable | `brltty`

This is a protective measure, given that command line options, etc can be used to change the location of a state directory to a non-BRLTTY-specific location. It prevents BRLTTY from Attempting to gain full access to another program's data, or, even worse, to a public directory. If it's really necessary to use such a directory then it's far better to let a human being take care of it.

#### When Started by an Unprivileged User

BRLTTY, as of release 6.2, can be started by an unprivileged user (not `root`). Use cases for this include system administrators or users who'd like BRLTTY to be startable by any user, by users who belong to a specific group, etc.

In order for an unprivileged user to successfully start BRLTTY, the environment needs to be prepared as follows:

- Assign the required capabilities to BRLTTY's executable.

- Give the user that's to be able to start BRLTTY the needed group memberships. This isn't necessary, i.e. BRLTTY will join them by itself, if the cap_setgid (temporary) capability has also been assigned to its executable. In this case, BRLTTY will extend the supplementary group list that it inherited from the user with any needed groups that are missing.

- Install the needed kernel modules. This isn't necessary, i.e. BRLTTY will install them by itself, if the cap_sys_module (temporary) capability has also been assigned to its executable.

- Ensure that BRLTTY's state directories have been created, have the correct ownership, and have the correct permissions. Each of these prerequisites isn't necessary, i.e. BRLTTY will take care of it by itself, if the associated (temporary) capability has also been assigned to its executable. They are:

  Temporary Capabilities for State Directory Prerequisites
  Prerequisite | Temporary Capability
  creation | cap_dac_override
  ownership | cap_chown
  permissions | cap_fowner

#### Privilege Parameters

Privilege parameters control how BRLTTY establishes its safer execution environment. From highest to lowest precedence, they can be specified via:

- The `--privilege-parameters` (or `-z`) command line option.
- The `privilege-parameters` configuration directive (in `/etc/brltty.conf`).
- The `BRLTTY_PRIVILEGE_PARAMETERS` environment variable (if the `-E` command line option has been specified).
- The `--with-privilege-parameters` configure option (at build time).

Each of these takes a comma-separated list of parameters in the form:

    platform:name=value

The `platform:` part is optional - if it's omitted then the parameter setting applies on all platforms. It's best, therefore, to always include it. The platform code for Linux is `lx`.

The command line option can be specified any number of times. Likewise, the configuration directive can be specified any number of times. Additional specifications extend, rather than replace, the parameter list. The same parameter specified later at the same level of precedence, or at a higher level of precedence, overrides its earlier setting.

The following privilege parameters are supported for Linux:

`path`
  This parameter sets the safe command search path. No attempt is made to validate it.
`scfmode`

  This parameter sets the mode of the system call filter. The supported modes are:

  `no`
    Don't install the filter. This is the default.
  `log`
    Log each unapproved system call to `syslog`. It's still executed.
  `fail`
    Each unapproved system call fails with `errno` set to `EPERM` (operation not permitted).
  `kill`
    An attempt to execute an unapproved system call causes the entire BRLTTY process to be killed.
`shell`
  This parameter sets the path to the safe default shell. No attempt is made to validate it.
`user`
  This parameter sets the unprivileged user.

#### Staying Privileged

If the `--stay-privileged` (or `-Z`) command line option is specified then BRLTTY will retain all of the privileges that it had when it was invoked. It won't:

- Switch to an unprivileged user (i.e. it'll continue to execute as the invoking user).
- Relinquish any group memberships. Missing needed group memberships are, if possible, still established.
- Relinquish any capabilities. Missing required capabilities are, if possible, still acquired.

#### Safe Command Search Path

A safe command search path is established by setting the `PATH` environment variable to a system-configured set of safe directories. You can find out which ones they are by running this command:

    getconf PATH

If, for some reason, the system-configured path isn't available then `/usr/sbin:/sbin:/usr/bin:/bin` is used.

The path can be explicitly set via the `path` privilege parameter.

#### Safe Default Shell

A safe default shell for external software to assume is established by setting the `SHELL` environment variable to `/bin/sh`. On many systems, this is the Bourne Shell. On others, it's a symbolic link to some other shell. To find out what it is on your system, run this command:

    ls -l /bin/sh

Note that scripts usually internally specify which shell is to be used.

The default shell can be explicitly set via the `shell` privilege parameter.

#### Namespace Isolation

BRLTTY isolates some of the kernel namespaces that are associated with its process. The namespaces that it currently isolates are:

cgroup
  This namespace is used to manage control groups.
mount
  This namespace is used to manage mount points.
UTS
  This namespace is used to manage the host name and the NIS domain name.

#### System Call Filter

The kernel provides a system call filter, known as `seccomp` (secure computing), that verifies that only an approved set of system calls is being used. The default is that BRLTTY doesn't actually use it because, by nature, using a system call filter makes a program somewhat fragile. Reasons for this include:

- The various object libraries that BRLTTY relies on, e.g. `libc`, might change which system calls they use from one release to the next.
- The filter is also applied to any external software, e.g. text-to-speech engines, that BRLTTY uses.

Even though the default is that BRLTTY doesn't use the filter, access to it is still provided for those users or administrators who prefer to avail themselves of the additional protection that it offers. Use the `scfmode` privilege parameter to specify how BRLTTY uses it.

- Specify `log` if you'd like BRLTTY to continue executing normally but to also record any unapproved system calls in the system log.
- Specify `fail` if you'd like unapproved system calls to fail, with BRLTTY attempting to handle those failures. Note that, while BRLTTY endeavours to handle such failures well, external software that it uses might not.
- Specify `kill` if you'd like an unapproved system call to cause the entire BRLTTY process to be summarily killed.

Installing the filter also includes configuring BRLTTY's process so that no external command that it subsequently invokes will be able to acquire any additional privileges. See the `PR_SET_NO_NEW_PRIVS` section of the man page for `prctl` for details. The quick summary is that, when executing any host command:

- It's set-user-ID bit will be ignored.
- It's set-group-ID bit will be ignored.
- It's file capabilities will be ignored.

The current list of approved system calls is in the `syscalls_linux.h` header, which is in the `Programs/` subdirectory of BRLTTY's source tree. BRLTTY must be rebuilt in order for changes to the list to become effective. Please let us know if you discover any system calls that are missing and should be added.

### Preparing the Environment

#### Creating the Unprivileged User

We recommend that the unprivileged user be named `brltty`, and that it be a system user.

The user's primary group should be user-specific. Ideally, it should have the same name as the user.

The user's supplementary group list should include all of the groups that own the various system resources that BRLTTY needs access to in order for it to do its job properly. See Needed Group Memberships for details.

The user should have a home directory. It should be on a local file system so that BRLTTY can start properly when there are network problems.

There's normally no need for anyone to log into the user. This can be enforced by setting its login shell to `/sbin/nologin`.

The user information (gecos) field should be set to a user-friendly description of why it exists. We recommend something like:

    Braille Device Daemon

##### The `useradd` Command

The host command to create a user is:

    useradd option ... name

It must be run as the super user (`root`).

It accepts a lot of options. For all of the details, run this command:

    man useradd

Unless there are special and/or unusual considerations, its most important options are:

`useradd` Options
Option | Action
`--system` | create a system user
`--user-group` | create a user-specific primary group
`--gid` group | set the primary group
`--groups` group,... | set the supplementary group list
`--no-create-home` | don't create the home directory
`--create-home` | create the home directory
`--home` path | the absolute path for the home directory
`--comment` text | set the user information (gecos) field
`--shell` path | set the login shell

##### The `brltty-mkuser` Script

The top-level directory of BRLTTY's source tree contains a script named `brltty-mkuser` that simplifies the job of Creating and making changes to the unprivileged user. For details, run this command:

    brltty-mkuser -h

The following options require special mention:

`-U` name
  This option specifies the name of the user that's to be created or changed. If the default unprivileged user was configured at build time then It defaults to that user.
`-N`
  This option allows the creation of a new user.
`-E`
  This option allows changes to be made to an existing user.
`-G`
  This option suppresses setting the user's supplementary group list. A new user won't belong to any supplementary groups, and an existing user will retain its current supplementary group memberships.

Note that this script is safe to accidentally invoke because both creating a new user (`-N`) and making changes to an existing user (`-E`) must be explicitly allowed. These options aren't mutually exclusive - both may be specified.

The user's supplementary group list is used to establish the needed group memberships. Each of the following options removes a group from the full list, and, therefore, also removes that group's associated functionality from BRLTTY. If a group's name is shown in italics then it's only our recommendation as its actual name isn't defined by any standard or convention.

`brltty-mkuser` Options for Excluding Supplementary Groups
Option | Removes Group | Lost Functionality
`-a` | `audio` | playing sound via the ALSA framework
`-b` | brlapi | reading BrlAPI's authorization key file (usually `/etc/brlapi.key`)
`-c` | `tty` | access to the virtual consoles
`-k` | `input` | keyboard monitoring
`-p` | `pulse-access` | playing sound via the Pulse Audio server
`-s` | dialout | access to serial devices
`-u` | usually `root` | access to USB devices

The following options are for configuring the basic (password file) fields of the user:

`brltty-mkuser` Options for New / Existing User Configuration
Option | Operand | Sets / Changes
`-d` | path | the home directory
`-g` | group | the primary group
`-i` | text | the user information (gecos) field
`-l` | path | the login shell

If any of these options isn't specified, then:

- When making changes to an existing user, it has no effect. Its associated field isn't changed.

- When creating a new user, the defaults are:

  `brltty-mkuser` Defaults for New User Configuration
  Option | Default When creating a New User
  `-d` | the updatable directory (`/var/lib/brltty/`)
  `-g` | a new group with the same name as the user
  `-i` | Braille Device Daemon
  `-l` | `/sbin/nologin`

The following options are primarily for developers:

`brltty-mkuser` Options for Developers
Option | Description
`-S` | use `sudo` to execute the commands as root
`-T` | test mode - show the commands that would be executed

#### Assigning Capabilities to the Executable

Don't do this if you only want BRLTTY to execute successfully `when started as the super user`_.

First, here's a summary of all of the capabilities that BRLTTY needs when started by an unprivileged user.

- The required capabilities are highlighted this way. They're needed throughout BRLTTY's execution.
- The temporary capabilities are highlighted this way. They're only needed when BRLTTY starts, and are relinquished when they're no longer needed.

Capability Summary
Capability | Reason
cap_chown | claiming ownership of the state directories
cap_dac_override | creating missing state directories
cap_fowner | adding group permissions to the state directories
cap_mknod | creating needed but missing device files
cap_setgid | switching to the primary group of the unprivileged user and establishing the needed group memberships
cap_sys_admin | injecting input characters
cap_sys_module | installing the needed kernel modules
cap_sys_tty_config | using the built-in PC speaker

##### The `setcap` Command

The host command to assign all of the capabilities, i.e. both the required capabilities and the temporary capabilities, to BRLTTY's executable so that it'll be fully functional when started by an unprivileged user, without requiring any additional administrator configuration, is:

    setcap cap_setgid,cap_chown,cap_fowner,cap_dac_override,cap_sys_module,cap_sys_admin,cap_sys_tty_config,cap_mknod+p /path/to/brltty

It must be run as the super user (`root`).

##### The `brltty-setcaps` Script

The top-level directory of BRLTTY's source tree contains a script named `brltty-setcaps` that simplifies the job of assigning capabilities to the executable. Its default is to assign all of them. For details, run this command:

    brltty-setcaps -h

It requires one positional argument - the path to BRLTTY's executable. It also accepts a number of options (which must precede that path). In particular, each of the following options removes a capability from the full set, and, therefore, also removes the functionality that that capability grants from BRLTTY.

`brltty-setcaps` Options for Excluding Capabilities
Option | Removes Capability | Lost Functionality
`-c` | cap_dac_override | creating missing state directories
`-d` | cap_mknod | creating needed but missing device files
`-g` | cap_setgid | switching to the primary group of the unprivileged user and establishing the needed group memberships
`-i` | cap_sys_admin | injecting input characters
`-m` | cap_sys_module | installing the needed kernel modules
`-o` | cap_chown | claiming ownership of the state directories
`-p` | cap_fowner | adding group permissions to the state directories
`-s` | cap_sys_tty_config | using the built-in PC speaker

The following options are primarily for developers:

`brltty-setcaps` Options for Developers
Option | Description
`-C` | don't set the capabilities
`-G` | set group root execution
`-S` | use `sudo` to execute the commands as root
`-T` | test mode - show the commands that would be executed
`-U` | set user root execution

### Privileged Host Operations

The privileged host operations that BRLTTY needs to be able to perform in order to be fully functional are:

#### Kernel Modules

BRLTTY relies on functionality provided by these kernel modules:

pcspkr
  For playing alert tunes via the built-in PC speaker.
uinput
  For creating virtual devices via the `uinput` device (`/dev/uinput` or `/dev/input/uinput`).

#### Needed Group Memberships

BRLTTY relies on file system and server (daemon) access granted via membership in the following owning user groups.

- A group name shown in bold is its actual name.
- A group name shown in italics is our recommended name for it as its actual name isn't defined by any standard or convention.

audio
  For playing sound via the ALSA framework.
brlapi
  For reading BrlAPI's authorization key file (usually `/etc/brlapi.key`). In other words, the group that owns that file.
dialout (some distributions use uucp)

  For serial I/O via these `/dev/` devices:

  ttyS<n>
    Actual serial ports.
  ttyACM<n>
    USB to serial adapters that implement the CDC ACM standard.
  ttyUSB<n>
    Other USB to serial adapters.
input
  For monitoring keyboard input via the devices in `/dev/input/`. This capability is used to support keyboard key tables (which allow keyboard key combinations to be bound to BRLTTY's navigation and configuration commands).
pulse-access
  For playing sound via the Pulse Audio daemon.
root

  For:

  - USB I/O via `USBFS` (using the devices in `/dev/bus/usb/`).
  - Creating virtual devices via the `uinput` device (`/dev/uinput` or `/dev/input/uinput`).

  Note that this is the `root` group - not the `root` user.

tty

  For:

  - Reading screen content via the `/dev/vcs` devices.
  - Virtual console monitoring and control via the `/dev/tty<n>` devices.

- When started by the super user, existing group memberships are relinquished.
- When started by an unprivileged user, existing group memberships are retained.

#### Required Capabilities

BRLTTY uses the privileged kernel operations that are granted via these capabilities throughout its execution. They are retained within its `permitted` and `effective` sets, but not within its `inheritable` and `ambient` sets. In other words, they're for BRLTTY itself and aren't passed along to any host command that it runs.

cap_mknod
  For creating needed but missing device files.
cap_sys_admin
  For using `TIOCSTI` to inject input characters typed on a braille device.
cap_sys_tty_config
  For using `KDMKTONE` and `KIOCSOUND` to play alert tunes via the built-in PC speaker.

#### Temporary Capabilities

BRLTTY only uses the privileged kernel operations that are granted via these capabilities when started by an unprivileged user. They allow it to configure itself, thus not relying so heavily on explicit administrator configuration, and are relinquished right after this has been done.

cap_chown
  If this capability has also been assigned to BRLTTY's executable then it can claim ownership of its state directories and their contents after having successfully switched to executing as the unprivileged user. The primary group of that user is used.
cap_dac_override
  If this capability has also been assigned to BRLTTY's executable then it can create missing state directories after having successfully switched to executing as the unprivileged user.
cap_fowner
  If this capability has also been assigned to BRLTTY's executable then it can add group permissions to its state directories and to their contents after having successfully switched to executing as the unprivileged user. Both read and write group permissions are added to all files and directories. In addition, for all directories, group search permission is added and the set-group-ID bit is set.
cap_setgid
  If this capability has also been assigned to BRLTTY's executable then it internally extends its supplementary group list with any needed group memberships that are missing.
cap_sys_admin
  While this is one of the required capabilities, it's also needed as a temporary capability for namespace isolation.
cap_sys_module
  If this capability has also been assigned to BRLTTY's executable then the needed kernel modules needn't have been already installed because they can be internally installed.

### Known Problems

#### Writing to SYSFS Files

The `SYSFS` virtual file system (usually mounted at `/sys/`) contains some files that BRLTTY occasionally needs to write to. While they can be read by anyone, they can only be written to by the super user (`root`). BRLTTY needs to be able to write to these files for (at least) the following reasons:

- Disabling USB autosuspend. Some USB-connected braille devices don't respond very well to being automatically suspended by the kernel. In these cases, BRLTTY disables the feature by writing to the `power/autosuspend` file of the associated PCI device.

A possible approach might be to add Udev rules.

#### Creating Virtual Devices via Uinput

The `uinput` device (`/dev/uinput` or `/dev/input/uinput`) is usually only readable and writable by the super user (`root`). Without any group and/or others access, it's impossible for BRLTTY to access it after having switched to the unprivileged user.

This situation could be easily resolved by granting group read and write permissions to the device. This shouldn't be problematic because its owned by the `root` group. Even better, of course, would be to give the device its own group (e.g. named `uinput`).

BRLTTY currently gets around this problem by including the following Udev rule to add an ACL (access control list) entry to the device:

    KERNEL=="uinput", ACTION=="add", TEST=="/usr/bin/setfacl",
    RUN+="/usr/bin/setfacl -m u:brltty:rw /dev/$name"

If BRLTTY finds that it isn't permitted to open the device (perhaps because the Udev rule isn't present) then its fallback method Is to create a private copy of the device file within its writable directory (usually `/var/run/brltty/`). This requires the cap_mknod capability.

Other alternatives include:

- Adding the `cap_dac_override` (permanent) capability so that BRLTTY isn't subject to file ownership restrictions. This is a very, very bad idea but, for completeness, it's on the table.
- Adding the `cap_fowner` (temporary) capability so that BRLTTY can add an acl (access control list) entry that grants itself access to the device.
- Adding the `cap_fowner` (temporary) capability so that BRLTTY can add group read and write permissions to the device.

Being able to create virtual devices is a very important ability for BRLTTY to have. It's used for:

- Creating a virtual keyboard in order to forward those keyboard events (key presses and releases) that haven't been claimed by bindings within keyboard key tables (which allow keyboard key combinations to be bound to BRLTTY's navigation and configuration commands) back to the system.
- Creating a virtual keyboard in order to inject simulated typing. This is done to support the typing of arbitrary combinations of modifier keys (shift, control, alt, etc), in combination (or not) with any character(s) and/or special key(s), on the keyboard of a braille device. The fallback interface - `TIOCSTI` - only provides character injection, which means that it can only support the typing of individual characters and the pressing of those special keys that can be emulated by well-known escape sequences.
- Creating a virtual sound device in order to watch for tones sent to the built-in PC speaker. This is done to support the redirection of these tones to the PCM interface of a sound card. While sighted users seem to be content with not hearing these tones on a computer that doesn't have a built-in PC speaker, most blind users rely on being able to hear them. For example, a blind person can't see a visual bell.
- Creating a virtual LED device in order to monitor what the keyboard LEDs are showing. This is done to support the generation of An audio-based rendering of LED state changes.

#### Creating Private Copies of Device Files

The default location of the writable directory (usually `/var/run/brltty/`) on a modern system is usually on a memory-resident file system that has been mounted with the `nodev` option. This prevents a device file within that file system from being opened, even if its permissions (mode, acl, etc) allow it. The good news is that this isn't usually a problem on a well-configured system because it's extremely rare for a needed device file to be missing. If it is, then the best solution is to change the writable directory to a better location (see State Directories for how to do that).